Issue paper on gaming

Steve Vosloo, March 2009

Digital games and learning: A South African perspective
- Introduction
  - In the late 1970s and 80s there was much interest in the role that digital games could play in supporting learning. That interest waned until fairly recently, due to two fundamental shifts since then: games are now far more complex and compelling (thanks to technological advances), and they are far more pervasive. As a result, in recent years there has been renewed interest in the potential of games for learning and teaching.
    
    Gaming has become a cultural phenomenon. Already the games industry generates more revenue than Hollywood. When comparing opening-weekend movie box office sales with sales of new games, the latter has been a winner since 2004, when Spiderman was pipped by Halo 2 (Yi, 2004).
    
    While research into the educational value of games has been somewhat limited, the number and maturity of research projects is increasing rapidly. Now there are “many claims found in the literature for and against the usefulness of computer games in encouraging learning” (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). The best research neither sets out to dismiss gaming as addictive, violent and a waste of time (the “moral panic” approach), nor to look to it as the saviour of broken education systems (the “blind faith” approach). In other words, it never claims that games are a panacea, but increasingly uncovers insights that deepen the understanding of what happens when kids, or adults, get totally “inside” a game. Extreme positions are unhelpful and inaccurate; the truth of how gaming can support learning is not in black or white -- it is complex and nuanced.
    
    I have tried to critically explore the potential that digital game-based learning holds for education (formal) and learning (informal) in South Africa (SA), to search out the shades of grey that colour this issue, and ask how it can support the development of 21st century skills. These skills include problem-solving, communication, collaboration, information literacy (being able to discern the credibility of information) and collective intelligence. Certainly games hold much potential to develop these skills, but there are challenges and risks to consider.
    
    A number of extensive – and excellent – literature reviews and research reports have been conducted on games and learning, e.g. Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004; Ellis, Heppell, Kirriemuir, Krotoski & McFarlane, 2006; and Freitas, 2007.
    
    It is not the intention to simply replicate these works here. The reviews should be consulted directly for more in-depth material on particular educational gaming aspects. This issues paper has drawn on the overarching benefits of games from these works, as well as others, with the South African context in mind. It is deliberately general, providing enough background on the benefits and challenges associated with games and learning in order to explore their significance for SA.
- Defining games
  - Games have been around since the dawn of humanity. But only in the last few decades have digital games emerged. There is no common agreement on how to define digital games (Becker, 2008), but it is useful to consider the different types, which include platform games (e.g. Sony PlayStation, Nintendo Wii and Microsoft Xbox); arcade games; computer games; and handheld (e.g. Nintendo DS or PlayStation Portable) and mobile games (e.g. those played on mobile phones). In this paper I simply say “games” to refer to digital games.
- Prevalence of game play
  - Most statistics about youth game play comes from the developed world. A major American school survey (Project Tomorrow, 2008) found the following statistics for gaming and schooling in 2007:
    
    * Only 3% of elementary learners say they don’t play electronic games on some kind of device. The same was found for 9% of middle school kids and 17% of high school kids.
    
    * While high school kids are still more likely to use a video game console for their gaming, the younger learners in grades K-8 are more likely to play games with computer based software and handheld gaming devices.
    
    * The biggest group of learners to play mobile-based games are learners in K-2 (33%).
    
    * Two-thirds of learners in grades 6-8 play online games – either in multiplayer environments (31%) or single play.
    
    On average across all grades, K-12 learners are playing games approximately 8-10 hours a week. In a more recent survey of 1,102 youth ages 12-17 in the USA it was found that digital game playing is universal, with almost all teens (97%) playing games (Lenhart et al., 2008). “The stereotype that gaming is a solitary, violent, anti-social activity just doesn’t hold up. The average teen plays all different kinds of games and generally plays them with friends and family both online and offline,” said Amanda Lenhart.
    
    Not much is known about game play amongst South African youth, especially those holding low socio-economic status. Given the high cost of console and PC games, and the pervasiveness of mobile phones, mobile gaming is the likely platform for the majority of SA's youth. A survey of 66 low-income black South African youth at a township school in Cape Town revealed that 53% play games on their mobile phones, and 86% have phones on which they could play games (Kreutzer, 2008).
- Benefits
  - Overview
    - Despite the increase in gaming research, there is scope for much more. Before we explore the learning benefits of games, it is important to note that much more is not known than what is known.
      
      From their comprehensive literature review, Mitchell & Savill-Smith (2004) concluded that the literature base is relatively sparse; the findings are often conflicting or contradictory in their outcomes; well-controlled studies of the adolescent use of games are lacking; and longitudinal studies are needed.
      
      Similarly, in their review of the literature Sandford and Williamson's (2005) admit that “many of the statements provided in support of games are contested, and it must be acknowledged that much of the recent theorisation around games and learning is based on only small-scale studies, personal reflections, or even conjecture.”
      
      Still, “even the harshest critics agree that we learn something from playing video games. The question is: how can we use the power of video games as a constructive force in schools, homes, and at work?” (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson & Gee, 2005). Certain game academics are beginning to suggest that we need to apply new lenses when examining this space, to ask different questions, change our perspectives.
      
      Game academic, Kurt Squire (2007), points out that the traditional educational technology paradigm “involves looking for blanket statements about whether games ‘work,’ or even isolating variables (like removing teachers from the equation and seeing what happens) in an effort to come up with variables that can be universally applied.” To apply such a narrow frame of reference is to overlook some of the opportunities that games offer for learning — qualities that put them in a different category to educational technology.
      
      Below are a few of those qualities, identified either in the emerging research, or by the theorising of game designers, academics, educators and others that are drawn into this multidisciplinary field.
  - Games are a form of play
    - According to Amory, Naicker, Vincent and Adams (1999), Rieber (1996) “argues that play, especially during early childhood, performs important roles in psychological, social and intellectual development” and “is a voluntary activity that is intrinsically motivating.” Games are a form of play. While we watch movies and read books (both are passive activities save for our imaginations joining up the storyline or painting mental pictures), we play games. Play is thus one of our earliest forms of active learning.
  - Games encourage risk taking
    - “Part of what makes play valuable as a mode of problem-solving and learning is that it lowers the emotional stakes of failing: players are encouraged to suspend some of the real world consequences of the represented actions, to take risks and learn through trial and error” (Jenkins et al., 2006). The approach is simply: “game over, start again.”
      
      As all great scientists, entrepreneurs and explorers have demonstrated, risk taking is a desirable quality. Within education, taking risks – trying out different strategies to solve a problem – in a safe, exploratory and constructivist learning environment is equally desirable.
  - Games involve problem-solving
    - Gee (2003) has proposed the link between game play and the scientific method. Will Wright, the designer of Sim City and The Sims, similarly argues that “success,” in gaming terms, often equates to solving a problem. He says that “in some sense, a game is nothing but a set of problems” (Jenkins et al., 2006). Henry Jenkins, who interviewed Will Wright, explains that in this context the playing of a game is akin to the tried–and–tested scientific process of problem identification, hypothesising, testing an approach and then refining the model.
  - Games motivate
    - One of the most powerful features of games is their power to motivate. Motivation in this sense is the inclination to continue to play the game.
      
      Usually a game offers a reward tantalising enough that players are willing to invest large amounts of time, energy and emotion into the playing thereof. A reward is a type of motivator, which is typically extrinsic – e.g. being paid money to do something – or intrinsic – e.g. playing a fantasy game for the sheer joy of it because one is interested in the fantasy genre. Edutainment games usually “provide entertainment as a reward if you are willing to suffer through a little education” (Resnick, 2004) – this is (poor) extrinsic motivation.
      
      An example of intrinsic motivation is mastery – the desire to become increasingly better at a particular thing, e.g. skateboarding or speaking French or playing a game. “For many games players the ultimate motivation is mastery” (Becta, 2001). In games, intrinsic motivators are not explicit but rather embedded in the playing of the game.
      
      An increase in mastery needs to be visible; there must be some feedback that a person is moving along the path from novice to expert. Games are adept at providing instant feedback to indicate change in skill levels. When an increase in mastery is visible to a group of people whose opinions matter to the player, then his or her motivation increases. Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), such as World of Warcraft (WoW), provide a persistent virtual platform for social visibility and therefore visible mastery.
      
      Studying Finnish children play a networked game at school, Ketamo and Suominen (2008) found competition between players to be a very powerful motivator to learn. Roy (2007) posits that mastery and education are closely related: "Visible mastery within a social context makes players and learners feel good. Once they feel good, they will devote free time and money to continuing to feel that way. In education, that gives us invested learners."
      
      Some of the qualities surrounding motivation are highlighted in the list below (Becta, 2001):
      
      * What indicates motivation? Independent work; self-directed problem posing; persistence; pleasure in learning.
      
      * What generates motivation? Active participation; intrinsic and prompt feedback; challenging but achievable goals; a mix of uncertainty and open-endedness.
      
      * What can motivation usefully support? Collaborative interaction; peer scaffolding of learning; creative competition or co-operation; equal opportunities.
      
      * What are problems with motivation? Motivation may lead to obsession; may cause transfer of fantasy into reality; may induce egotism.
  - Games engage
    - When playing digital games, kids will tell you that they are having “fun”. But this fun is not laughter–filled, it represents a form of engagement and absorption (which is how some people play games for 10 hours straight). Most educators can only dream of creating learning experiences that are as engaging for youth as popular games.
      
      Papert (1980), observing children using computers, called this activity “hard fun,” which is “enjoyment derived from a challenging but meaningful learning experience” (Galarneau, 2005). This “experience of becoming engaged in activities that bring challenge to a set of skills” is called being in a state of “flow” (Gregory, 2008, citing various works of Csikszentmihalyi).
      
      Well-designed games can be provide the conditions – listed below – for players to enter flow states (Gregory, 2008):
      
      * Goals are clear: the player is aware of what he or she wants to do.
      
      * Immediate feedback: the player knows how well he or she is doing at any moment.
      
      * Skills match challenges: the skill level of the player is in balance with the task at hand.
      
      * Concentration is deep: the player focuses all attention on the task at hand.
      
      * Problems are forgotten: the player is able to dismiss irrelevant stimuli that may interfere with concentration.
      
      * Control is possible: a feeling of mastery is gained.
      
      * Self-consciousness disappears: the player feels able to transcend the limits of the ego.
      
      * The sense of time is altered: the player either loses track of time or time seems to pass with rapidity.
      
      * The activity is intrinsically rewarding: the experience is worth engaging in for its own sake.
      
      In 1980, Malone observed computer game players entering a “flow” state. Since then he has published a number of papers on what features help to increase motivation to play games, such as 'challenge', 'fantasy' and 'curiosity'. Malone and Bowman (1982, cited in Squire, 2003) associated the flow state with enhanced learning.
  - Games involve situated learning
    - At its simplest, the theory of situated learning refers to “learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied” (Wikipedia, 2008). For example, at chef school, aspiring students could passively sit in a class and listen to a description of how to make a minestrone soup, or they could get into the kitchen and try to make it, situated in the context where it will actually happen. It is obvious that situated learning is an effective and deep way of learning.
      
      Simulations and role playing in games are powerful vehicles for situated learning. “Simulations broaden the kinds of experiences users can have with compelling data, giving us a chance to see and do things that would be impossible in the real world” (Jenkins et al., 2006). Laurel (1991, cited in Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004) claims that:
      
      "Educational simulations (as opposed to tutorial and drill-and-practice forms) excel in that they represent experience as opposed to information. Learning through direct experience has, in many contexts, been demonstrated to be more effective and enjoyable than learning through 'information communicated as facts'."
      
      Online adventure games such as multi-user dungeons (MUDs) and fantasy role-play games are inherently social and so “support both 'social learning' and 'situated learning' (i.e. learning that does not just happen in people’s heads but is embedded in the social and cultural world)” (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004).
  - Games encourage identity adoption
    - Situated learning also invites players to take on the identities of game characters, especially in the form of role playing. Gee (2003) describes how role playing games provide such immersive experiences for players that they begin to strongly identify with their character. This character is usually an existing or aspiring expert in some field — the best racing car driver, city planner or spy. The theory is that over time players take on the expert’s attributes.
      
      Squire (2007) suggests that this “means more than saying ‘I felt like a scientist in that game.’ It means doing some of the things that scientists actually do.” Clearly in an educational context this is a highly desirable effect.
  - Game communities foster scientific habits of mind
    - In the USA, as in SA, the need for a scientifically literate citizenry is strong. However, in both countries the education systems have failed to foster the right attitudes to science amongst learners. Steinkuhler and Duncan (2008) provide empirical evidence to suggest MMOGs as another way to foster scientific habits of mind.
      
      In their study, 1,984 randomly selected posts on one of the official WoW forums were analysed to identify the informal science literacy practices that occur within game-related online communities. Launched in 2004, WoW now boasts over ten million subscribers globally (Woodcock, 2008). The data analysis revealed the following (Steinkuhler & Duncan, 2008):
      
      * The content of 86% of the posts “could be considered 'social knowledge construction' – meaning, the collective development of understanding, often through joint problems solving and argumentation.”
      
      * Roughly one-third (37%) of those posts constituted a form of scientific argumentation. Citing the previous studies of Kuhn (1991) and Osborne, Erduren and Simon (2004), the authors remind that “such practices do not come naturally and are difficult to foster.”
      
      * To further illustrate the occurrence of scientific argumentation, in 28% of the posts “individuals used data or evidence of some form in order to warrant their claims.”
      
      * In 65% of posts, players displayed an evaluative epistemology in which knowledge is treated as an open-ended process of evaluation and argument. An evaluative epistemological disposition, as opposed to an absolutist or relativist one, is appropriate to scientific thinking.
      
      What are the implications for science education? “In a school system sometimes sidetracked by testing regimes that pressure teachers and students to focus on only a narrow range of topics, popular culture contexts such as these might be a nice complement to classrooms, augmenting classroom instruction by situating informal science literacy in popular culture context” (Steinkuhler & Duncan, 2008).
      
      Citing Lave and Wenger (1991), the authors remind that “understanding informal contexts for learning is crucial if we are to advance educational theory and practice beyond the contexts we ourselves contrive.”
      
      What is not known about the study is the demographic of the posters (age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.) What is encouraging is that the posts were not made by a small number of verbose posters, but rather by the forum community at large. This behaviour supports the idea of “collective intelligence” (Levy, 1999, cited in Steinkuhler & Duncan, 2008), one of the key new media literacies identified by Jenkins et al. (2006) for learners in the twenty-first century.
  - Games encourage the learning of subject-specific language
    - In the augmented reality game Sick at South Shore Beach, learners were motivated to use and develop specialist language – in this case environmental science language - as they took on the role of environmental detectives (Matthews, 2008).
  - Gaming is a social practice
    - It is a myth that in general gamers are antisocial (Jenkins, n.d.; Lenhart et al., 2008). While previous studies have found links between heavy gaming and antisocial behaviour, this has been refuted by studies that found no evidence that “heavy computer users are less sociable than their peers” (Glissov et al, 1994, cited in Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004), nor for “the theory that computer games are taking the place of normal social behaviour” (Colwell et al, 1995, cited in Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004).
      
      “Some studies have reported how young people regularly visit each others’ homes to play games together, and how inexperienced players are introduced to game-play strategies by more experienced friends. Within these friendship groups, support materials such as games magazines, books of hints and tips, and walkthrough guides are often shared” (Sandford & Williamson, 2005).
  - Games appeal to certain disengaged students
    - While games are not for all learners, both Squire (2003) and Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2005) reported that using games engaged traditionally disengaged groups of learners.
  - Summary
    - Amongst other things, game playing encourages experimentation and risk taking, is a form of problem solving and is highly engaging. Games can simulate situated learning — training “on the job” — where role playing develops a strong connection between the player and the identity he or she is taking on. Ideally this projected identity is an expert that the player (learner) wants to become, eventually resulting in transfer of in-game learning to real-world skills.
      
      From an education point of view, the potential is very exciting. Gaming offers active experiences with a high degree of interactivity. Think of the potential when learners begin to lead civilizations, run farms, plan and build cities, create and inhabit virtual worlds, conduct scientific experiments or solve murder mysteries.
- Challenges
  - Violence
    - Given identity adoption by players, does playing violent video games train children to become violent? While it is conceivable that players will learn undesirable skills from the characters that they play in games, it must be remembered that most people have the ability to separate fantasy from reality, game play from real life. In Reality Bytes: Eight Myths About Video Games Debunked, Jenkins (n.d.) expands on this in the context of military training. The US military uses games for training purposes. In these games it is feasible that the player kills someone.
      
      Following this school of thought one might say that teens that play violent video games become real life killers. After all, the military is a highly efficient training organisation. However, Jenkins points out that this model only works if:
      
      * we remove training and education from a meaningful cultural context;
      
      * we assume learners have no conscious goals and that they show no resistance to what they are being taught;
      
      * and we assume that they unwittingly apply what they learn in a fantasy environment to real world spaces.
      
      Clearly a teenager playing a game in his or her bedroom is different to being in a military compound after six months of hard core training.
      
      On how games should affect players in an educational way, Gee (2003) suggests three learning principles that should appear in good games, which respond to the issue of bad content. Ideally, games should make the players think about the real world, about how they learn, and about their culture. Players should critically reflect upon their actions in the game (killing, stealing, etc.), upon the stereotypes in the game (Eastern Europeans are violent) and about what cultural and social norms the game promotes (murder is acceptable, violence is a way to solve problems, etc.). This critical reflection will hopefully help players to understand why they don't want to accept the game assumptions, or enact the in-game activities in real life.
  - Teacher resistance
    - Learners are often more technically proficient and computer literate than their teachers. Further, they are more likely to be gamers than their teachers. Teachers who are intimidated by technology, who do not want their learners to know more than them about a topic, or who don't see the value of games for learning, will not support gaming in or outside of the classroom.
  - A teacher or facilitator may be necessary
    - While much type of game play is self-directed, many believe that a teacher or facilitator is still necessary to guide the overall play process, answer learner questions and help learners who are stuck, and to facilitate learner discussion about the game. Ketamo and Suominen (2008) contend that without this guidance, there is "a great risk that learners will actually learn the wrong information wile playing educational games”.
  - Gaming is not for everyone
    - Some young people simply do not like games (Ketamo & Suominen, 2008; Matthews, 2008; Squire, 2003; Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005). As such they will have a mental block against playing games in the classroom or for homework.
      
      "Educators need to be aware that not all children will enjoy playing games, have equal competence in playing or have access to them in their leisure time. It is also possible that some students will not value the use of games for educational purposes. They may feel comfortable with their ability to complete more conventional schooling activities, and threatened by weaknesses in their ability to play games” (Sandford & Williamson, 2005).
- South African perspective
  - Overview
    - As the references show, most research about games and learning comes from developed countries. While this research is relevant, the South Africa context is significant in that there is a particular education system with its own strengths and weaknesses. The society is multilingual and multicultural and the access to technology for South African youth is varied and vastly different to that of the USA, for example. It is therefore important to understand the opportunities and challenges here.
  - Low-hanging fruit
    - Informal learning contexts
      - Given the challenges of integrating gaming into the classroom – which are not overwhelming, but certainly significant – gaming in informal learning contexts presents a more feasible option. This is an acknowledgement that there are multiple sites of learning for youth, such as at school, at home and in the community.
    - Mobile games
      - Given the pervasiveness of mobile phones in SA, this is the medium of choice to be exploited for youth gaming. Options range from simple, single-player, arcade-style games, to networked/connected, multi-player games, e.g. simulations.
    - Alternate reality games
      - Since 2001, alternate reality games (ARG) have emerged as an exciting and engaging genre that combines online information and the physical world. Like a scavenger hunt, ARGs require the solving of a series of puzzles that play out in the real world. However, there are two key differences between an ARG and a traditional scavenger hunt. Firstly, the narrative of an ARG is revealed through multiple media, e.g. websites, SMSs, emails, movie posters, or newspaper and TV adverts. Secondly, ARGs are not typically “won” or solved by a single player; players usually collectively solve puzzles to advance a game's storyline.
        
        The educational benefits of ARGs include collaboration between players; the development of multimodal reading skills (playing requires reading of clues across various media); and an improvement of subject-specific content knowledge. Because the puzzles are complex and require player collaboration to solve them, the games are a practical tutorial in collective intelligence – the notion that no-one knows everything but everyone knows something. Lastly, critical reading is required to negotiate the game trail across legitimate as well as false clues.
        
        ARGs are well suited to SA because they offer an affordable, low-fidelity gaming option, using popular mobile- and web-based platforms to cost-effectively create (compared to the cost of most digital game development) accessible and engaging content within an alternate reality setting.
    - Interactive fiction games
      - Interactive fiction games include the original, text-based adventure games. These can now easily be deployed and played on mobile phones.
  - Challenges
    - Key challenges for digital game-based learning in SA include:
      
      * Lack of funding for game development and research.
      
      * Need for a more active game development industry in SA.
      
      * High cost of games and gaming hardware.
      
      * Cost and logistics of distributing games.
      
      * Teachers who are not tech-savvy.
      
      * Poor ICT access.
- More research needed
  - More research is needed to understand digital games and learning. Sandford and Williamson (2005) recommend the following research questions:
    
    * Which children benefit from learning with games in which contexts?
    
    * To what extent are existing research findings from small-scale studies still valid when learning with games is introduced in mainstream settings with large numbers of teachers and children?
    
    * What measures or tools can we develop to assess (in a way accessible to children, educators, industry and policy communities) what children are learning through gameplay?
    
    * To what extent can games themselves act as assessment mechanisms?
    
    Facer (2003) makes a very important observation regarding motivation and flow, that much of the research “does not recognise the social contexts in which games, fun and learning take place. They focus on the characteristics of the activity itself, on design issues, rather than on the player's experience, attitudes and interests.” She believes that what researchers who explore the links between the motivation of games with learning should ask, is: “How much of motivation is dependent upon context as well as upon activity?”
- Conclusion
  - Digital game-based learning is not a panacea for education, but it does hold exciting potential alongside other forms of learning. Many educational benefits can be achieved through gaming, in a way that is highly engaging and motivating for youth to play. It is certainly worth exploring the application of games in the South African learning context.
- References
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    Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J., & Adams, C. (1999). The use of Computer Games as an Educational Tool: Identification of Appropriate Game Types and Game Elements. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(4), pp 311-322.
    
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    Becta. (2001). Computer Games in Education project: Aspects. Retrieved 12 September 2008, from http://partners.becta.org.uk/index.php?section=rh&catcode=&rid=13588&pagenum=2&NextStart=1.
    
    Ellis, H., Heppell, S., Kirriemuir, J., Krotoski, A., & McFarlane, A. (2006). Unlimited Learning: The role of computer and video games in the learning landscape [Electronic Version]. Retrieved 10 June 2008, from http://www.elspa.com/assets/files/u/unlimitedlearningtheroleofcomputerandvideogamesint_344.pdf.
    
    Egenfeldt-Nielsen, S. (2005). Beyond Edutainment: Exploring the Educational Potential of Computer Games. Unpublished PhD, IT University Copenhagen, Copenhagen. Retrieved 28 May 2008, from http://www.seriousgames.dk/downloads/egenfeldt.pdf.
    
    Facer, K. (2003). Computer Games and Learning: Why do we think it's worth talking about computer games and learning in the same breath? A discussion paper from Futurelab. Retrieved 10 April 2008, from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/documents/discussion_papers/Computer_Games_and_Learning_discpaper.pdf.
    
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    Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., Macgill, A. R., Evans, C., Vitak, J. (2008). Teens’ gaming experiences are diverse and include significant social interaction and civic engagement . Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved 18 September 2008, from http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/263/report_display.asp.
    
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    Matthews, J. (2008). Sick at South Shore Beach: A Place-Based Augmented Reality Game as a Framework for Building Academic Language in Science. Paper presented at ED-MEDIA — World conference on educational multimedia, hypermedia & telecommunications, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, Vienna, Austria. 30 June - 4 July, 2008. pp. 2992-2997.
    
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